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Analysis
Analysis Overview
Step 1: Identify Outcome
Step 2: Capture the Performance
Step 3: Plan the Learning
Step 4: Identify Learners
Table of Contents
Click for ISD Concept Map
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Once the impact or desired result has been defined, the next step in the backwards planning process is to define the performance level that will support the impact. That is, what exactly must the performers do to ensure that the results or outcome is achieved? Defining the desired performance by recording the steps gives the designers an outline on which to base the learning process.
Defining the performance is normally achieved through two means: explicitly and expository. Explicit performances are ones that can be readily observed because they are already in place. For example, a manager who wants to ensure that new hires are trained in a process that is already in place or a manager who has observed an expert performer master a process and now wants to ensure that the rest of her department models that performance.
Expository performances are new, thus there are no exemplary performers to observe in order to base the performance steps on. Rather, the analyst has to prompt an expert to interpret and describe something based upon her background experiences and knowledge of the subject or task. For example, when a new process is put into place or a process that has been radically changed to produce a more efficient and/or effective one. In addition, tasks that are normally associated with "knowledge workers" often have no clearly observable actions and can often be accomplished in multiple ways, thus a definable performance must be built.
It should be noted that some performances will not be exclusive to one or the other, but rather a combination of the two, however they will normally fit more readily in one of the two performances.
Defining the performance is normally achieved through one or a combination of two means: observing and interviewing Exemplary Performers (EP) and/or Subject Matter Experts (SME).
We can thank John Howe and Dave Ferguson for the term, "Exemplary Performer" (exemplar) - a practitioner who currently does the job, produces exemplary results, and who's widely seen as outstanding in those two dimensions.
Now I'm going to differ with Dave and John on the term of Subject Matter Expert, mostly because I held the title of SME for over a year while serving in the Armed forces who basically define a SME as an expert in the job who works with an instructional designer in the development of a learning/performance process. And for the purpose of this discussion I'm going to add: the expert may not currently perform the job, but her experience and knowledge about the job has given her insights into the performance, especially expository performances.
Explicit Performance
This type of performance is normally easier to define and break down into tasks because you have a model of excellence to observe and interview. Observations are normally accomplished through:
- Observation Task Analysis: Observe the tasks required in the performance under actual working conditions and record each step for performing a task and the standards of performance.
- Simulated Task Analysis: Observe the tasks required in the performance using simulated working conditions. The working conditions should match the job environment as closely as possible. Record each step and standards of performance in addition to receiving input from the performer when the simulation does not match actual working conditions.
In addition to the observations, an "Interview Analysis" is also performed: consulting with the exemplar to determine the required steps and standards of performance. This is normally used to validate the data gathered by the observations. Note that this method should not be used alone as performers often leave out vital steps as they have performed the task so often that some of the steps become internalized, thus they fail to acknowledge in even doing so.
In addition, observations normally only include the what and how, thus the interview is used to gather the whys. For example, Icihro always goes through the same basic routine when he approaches the plate to hit.
Part of the routine is a tug on the shoulder of his uniform. While some of his hitting techniques can easily be understood by observation, this part is not readily explainable:
- Is a habit?
- Is it a lucky superstition?
- Is it part of a routine to put him into a zen-like hitting state?
- Does it loosen his sleave so as not to restrict arm movement?
Questions are asked to determine if this part of the exemplar's performance is required. If it is, such a loosening his sleeve for full arm movement, then the "why" is important so that it can be explained to the learners. Perhaps it might be to put him in a zen-like hitting state and if so, do new performers need to do it or can they learn it on their own or should it be put into an advance learning process once they have learned the basics?
Expository Performances
Unlike explicit performances, expository performances have no exemplars to observe and interview, thus the performance steps are normally obtained through:
- Content Analysis: Analyzing operating or technical manuals (to include web resources) in order to determine the steps and standards of performance.
- Interview Analysis: Consulting with a SME to determine the required steps and standards of performance.
While explicit performances normally rely mostly on exemplars to model the performance, expository performances rely more on a network of content, SMEs and EPs to first build the model and then to test the model. In addition, you have to work more closely with your customers to ensure the model will work for them (buy-off).
As you work your way through this network, you will often discover that there are a number of ways to accomplish a task within the performance. A simple example is a software program in which you can use hot-keys, a context menu (click the right key on the mouse), or the main menu at the top of the screen. Thus you have to decide if all three methods are actually needed or if you can reduce the number for more effective and efficient learning. For example, you might decide to concentrate on the context menu whenever possible. However, since the performers will use the copy and paste command quite frequently, then the hot keys for these two commands will also be taught.
Capturing the performance provides the designer with a blueprint for the next step in backwards planning -- planning the learning process.
Listed below are some of the tools you may need in the Capturing the Performance plan:
- Task Inventory
- Job List
- Job Description
The next step is to Identify the Learning.
Task Inventory
If you are doing a full scale analysis, then you might be asked to compile a Job list, Job Descriptions, and Task Inventory for each job. These three assignments are not normally performed every time you research a performance problem. But they are essential to anyone involved in HRD, management, or performance as they set the standards for how a job is to be performed.
If the job and task inventories have already been compiled, then you should review and update them before moving on to the task analysis or needs analysis.
Job List
A job list is a compilation of all job titles associated with the system. Jobs are collection of tasks and responsibilities. A job is generally associated with the worker's title. Secretary, welder, and bookkeeper are jobs. A job consists of responsibilities, duties, and tasks that are defined and can be accomplished, measured, and rated. It is used as an employment tool for classifying work and for selecting employees.
Job Description
A job description is then obtained by performing a job analysis. This is the process of breaking down the complexity of a person's job into logical parts. It identifies the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to perform the job correctly. It is often concerned with the subjective elements of a job. . . that is, expectations and attitudes.
When writing the Job Description, try to create a picture of the job that shows what will be expected of anyone fulfilling the position. Also, prepare a job description for each position. That is, you might have two sales positions, but some tasks may be different or are included in one position but not the other.
Task Inventory
A Task Inventory is compiled for each job in a department or system. A task is a function the jobholder performs, such as typing a letter, spot-welding a crack, or posting accounts into a ledger. A task is a well defined unit of work. It stands by itself. It is a logical and necessary action in the performance of a job or duty. It has an identifiable start and end point and results in a measurable accomplishment or product. It takes Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes (SKA) to perform a task. Some jobs may only have a couple of tasks associated with them, while others will have dozens of tasks.
The following are characteristics of tasks:
- A task has a definite beginning and end.
- Tasks are performed in relatively short periods of time. They are usually measured in minutes or hours.
- Tasks are observable. By observing the performance of a jobholder, a definite determination can be made that the task has been performed.
- Each task is independent of other actions. Tasks are not dependent on components of a procedure. A task is performed by an individual for its own sake.
- A task statement is a statement of a highly specific action. It always has a verb and an object. It may have qualifiers, such as "measure distances with a tape measure". A task statement should not be confused with an objective that has conditions and standards.
"Adjust gears on a 10 speed bicycle" is a task statement. "Given a broken 10 speed bicycle and a tool kit, adjust gears. Bicycle must be operable." is an objective. "Practice good safety habits" is NOT a task statement...it cannot be measured. "Supervise personnel" is not a task statement. Use an action word to indicate what the jobholder performs, such as "Plans daily work schedule".
The task inventory consists of all the tasks that a jobholder requires to perform the job to standards. Each and every task performed by the job incumbent must be listed on the task inventory. It provides vital information about the skills, knowledge, and abilities required to perform a job. This information is valuable for developing employee selection procedures and training programs. For hiring, it informs the selection committee and applicant of what the job entails. For training purposes, it tells the developer what the job requires. It is also valuable for setting standards in performance appraisals and evaluating jobs to determine the correct pay level. Again, this document may already have been created. You should ensure that it truly represents the tasks being performed by the job holder, and that all the tasks are listed.
When writing the task, start each task with a verb, indicate how it is performed, and state the objective. For example: "Loads crates using a forklift." One way of getting a comprehensive list is to have the employees prepare their own list, starting with the most important tasks. Then, compare these lists with yours. Finally, discuss any differences with the employees, and make changes where appropriate. This helps to ensure that you have accounted for all tasks and that they are accurate. It also gets them involved in the analysis activity.
Task or needs analysis should be performed whenever there are new processes or equipment, when job performance is below standards, or when requests for changes to current training or for new training are received. An analysis helps ensure that training is the appropriate solution.
See tasks for more information
Select Tasks
At this point you should fairly well understand the system or process you are researching. You should know the purpose of the system, the people within the system, and the main goals they are trying to achieve. You should also know the jobs and the associated tasks the system requires.
You and the clients are now ready to select the tasks to be trained. The information gathered in the systems overview, i.e., surveys, interviews, etc., will aid in your decision making process. Two processes are used in the identification of areas to be trained - Task Analysis and Needs Analysis.
Task Analysis
A Task Analysis sequences and describes observable, measurable behaviors involved in the performance of a task or job. It involves the systematic process of identifying specific tasks to be trained, and a detailed analysis of each of those tasks in terms of frequency, difficulty and importance.
When deciding which tasks to train, two guiding factors must be used — effective and efficient. Seek the best program within acceptable costs while meeting the learning intents. Often it helps to select tasks for training by dividing them into three groups:
- Those that are to be included in a formal learning program.
- Those that are to be included in On-the-Job-Training (OJT).
- Those for which no formal or OJT is needed (i.e., job performance aids or self study packets).
When selecting tasks to be trained consider the following factors:
- Is the training mandated by the Occupational Safety and Health Act?
- Could a job performance aid or self study packet be used in place of formal training?
- Can people be hired that have already been trained?
- Is training needed to ensure their behavior does not compromise the company's legal position, i.e., Equal Employment Opportunity, labor relations laws, or state laws?
- What will happen if we do not train this task?
- What will be the benefits if we do train this task?
- If we don't train it, how will the employee learn it?
- How will this training help to achieve our goals?
Below are questions to ask when performing a Task Analysis:
- How difficult or complex is the task?
- What behaviors are used in the performance of the job?
- How frequently is the task performed?
- How critical is the task to the performance of the job?
- To what degree is the task performed individually, or is part of a set of collective tasks?
- If a subset of a set of collective tasks, what is the relationship between the various tasks?
- What is the consequence if the task is performed incorrectly or is not performed at all?
- To what extent can the task be trained on the job?
- What level of task proficiency is expected following training?
- How critical is the task?
- What information is needed to perform the task? What is the source of information?
- What are the performance requirements?
- Does execution of the task require coordination between other personnel or with other tasks?
- Are the demands (perceptual, cognitive, psychomotor or physical) imposed by the task excessive?
- How often is the task performed during a specified time-frame (i.e., daily, weekly, monthly, yearly)?
- How much time is needed to perform this task?
- What prerequisite skills, knowledge, and abilities are required to perform the task?
- What is the current criteria for acceptable performance? What is the desired criteria?
- What behaviors distinguish good performers from poor performers?
- What behaviors are critical to the performance of the task?
Build Performance Measures
Construct performance measures for each task to be trained and the critical steps for achieving the performance measures. If your organization has the resources, then all tasks, including the ones that were not selected for training, should also be included. This information provides documentation for the correct performance of tasks.
Performance measures are the standards for how well a task must be performed. There are four basic analysis techniques used to ensure that all performance measures associated with a task are recorded (Wiggs, 1984):
- Observation Task Analysis: Observe the task under actual working conditions and record each step for performing the task and the standards of performance.
- Simulated Task Analysis: Observe skilled individuals or groups performing the task under simulated working conditions. The working conditions should match the job environment as closely as possible. Record each step and standards of performance with inputs from the skilled performers.
- Content Analysis: Analyze the operating or technical manual to determine the steps and standards of performance.
- Interview Analysis: Consult with a SME to determine the required steps and standards of performance. This is normally used to validate the data gathered by other techniques. This method should not be used alone. Experts often leave out vital steps as they have performed the task so often that some of the steps become so internalized that they fail to acknowledge doing so!
The client management must approve the task performance measures. If possible, the client supervisors and SME should write them with the training organization's guidance. This does not relieve the trainers' accountability for this function since they are the masters of this technology.
Choose Instructional Setting
This step selects the appropriate delivery system or media. What has to be decided is how and where the training will take place. The instructional setting is the major medium of a training program, for example, a Job Performance Aid (JPA) for operating a piece of equipment, classroom training, or elearning.
The instructional setting has minor media within it. Minor media are the learning strategies that instruct the learning points or steps. For example a JPA instructional setting might have two - a decal for starting the equipment and a manual for performing the various operations. The classroom setting could have fishbowls for teaching observation, in-baskets for teaching time management, and lectures for introducing new information. CBT could use video, self-tests, and simulations. The learning strategies (minor media) will be discussed in detail in the next chapter - Design.
If you have successfully trained similar tasks in the past, then you probably have a pretty good idea of the required delivery system. If not, then there are several options to consider when selecting the delivery system:
- Feedback: Simple, yet effective, and often overlooked with today's high technology! Sometimes your job is not to train the workers who cannot perform the task, but to train their supervisors or managers in effective coaching and supervision methods.
- Lockstep: This is normally viewed as the traditional (classroom) type of training. It is best used when you have lectures or team training. Its main disadvantage is that no one learns at the same pace.
- Self-Paced: This allows the learners to proceed at their own pace but it requires more development time and coordination.
- Job: This includes Job Performance Aids (JPA) such as decals and manuals and On-the-Job training (OJT). JPA are normally the cheapest method to implement while OJT can provide high quality, cost effective training. The disadvantages are the interruptions that take place in the workplace with OJT, while JPA provide no supervision or coaching.
- Blended: Best-Of-Class Model (hybrid or modular) are a combination of various media that provides the learners with the best type of instruction - this should be the goal of any training program.
One of the fallacies that many trainers fall into is to build every training program the same way. At one company I worked with, their favorite training model was to create a learning guide and then have the learners take turns reading the book in a lockstep training session. While a friend of mine reported that her organization would not consider doing a training program unless they could turn it into a full scale multimedia computer training production. Trainers often fall into these training traps, they have a number of success with a certain medium, so they do not consider other options in the future.
Although most learning objectives and concepts can be taught using almost any media, most have an ideal medium in a given learning situation. To help with the major media selection process, it often helps to run it through a flowchart:
Click chart to enlarge
The above Training Media Selection Flowchart is a tool to aid you in selecting the best medium for a training program. The flowchart should not be thought of as the final word in media selection, but rather a guide that shows the various options for communicating and transferring your learning objectives to others. It does not attempt to take it through every avenue of approach, as that would lead to a highly convoluted chart; but rather its goal is to lead you through the major media directions and choices.
When selecting training media, you have to consider your learner needs, resources, experience, and training goals. Also, do not take a complete training program through the chart, but rather each module of your training program. The goal of a good training effort is to build a viable and efficient program. That is, it should provide the best learning environment at the lowest possible cost. Selecting the best medium for each module and incorporating it into your course allows you to build a Best-Of-Class program.
The guidelines for selecting the instructional setting are simple - you want the learners to master the new or existing technology in a professional, effective, and efficient manner.
There are a wide variety of instructional settings. For a comprehensive list, view the Media Dictionary.
Heraclitus of Ephesus was one of the early Greek philosophers. He emphasized that the world is constantly changing. He said, "No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it is not the same river and he is not the same man." The saying "There is nothing permanent except change" is based upon his philosophy. Estimating training is no exception. . . it also will change and vary depending upon who is building the training programming and what type of training they are creating.
Before moving on the next step in the Backwards Planning process, identify the level of performance the learners must be able to do to create the business impact, you might want to read Training Needs Assessment.
Resources
Analysis Templates
Various Approaches to Needs Analysis
Estimating Training Developing Time and Costs
To help with estimating costs of any learning program, use the Excel Spreadsheet Rough Cost estimator. This will help you get a very rough estimate.
Learning Activities for Analysis
Previous Chapter - Introduction to ISD
Next Chapter - Design
References
Brinkerhoff, R. O., Apking, A. M. (2001) High Impact Learning. New York: Basic Books.
Garnevale, A., Gainer, L., & Villet, J., (1990), Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ray, R. (2008). The Future of learning. Chief Learning Officer. Dec., 2008, p.21.
Trolley, E. (2006). Lies About Learning. Larry Israelite, ed. Baltimore, Maryland: ASTD.
Wick, C., Pollock, R., Jefferson, A., Flanagan, R., (2006). The Six Disciplines of Breakthrough Learning: How to Turn Training and Development Into Business Results. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
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Bowsher, J. (1998). Revolutionizing Workforce Performance: A System Approach to Mastery. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Laird, Dugan (1985). Approaches To Training And Development (2nd ed.), . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Rossett, Allison & Sheldon, Kendra (2001). Beyond the Podium: Delivering Training and Performance to a Digital World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, p. 67.
Wiggs, Garland (1984). Designing Learning Programs. In Nadler, Leonard (Ed.). The Handbook of Human Resource Development. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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