Identify Performance

Table of Contents

Click for ISD Concept Map

Assessing business outcomes and needs assessments are probably the two major analysis that a designer performs. However there are a few other tools that are often used. Below are a few of them that you should be familiar with.

The SME (Subject Matter Experts) who are sent to help with a new project are often the ones who have developed Band-Aids that keep the system running. This is not a put down, but rather a compliment. For without them the entire system would have collapsed into absolute chaos. These people often become frustrated with the pace of the analysis process, not understanding why development of the project cannot begin immediately. They often jump ahead to design and development far too soon. Ensure you capture such suggestions in the form of design notes attached to the analysis documents for later consideration. This allows team members to feel their inputs are considered important and will not be forgotten.

You should also understand the scope of the system or process. The scope of a system is the system's boundaries. For example, you are analyzing a production department. You notice that it takes many supplies to keep it operating, such as raw material to make the product, cleaning supplies, maintenance supplies, etc. Don't get led off into studying the inventory control department. They are probably two entirely different systems or processes. Stay within one process at a time until you thoroughly understand it. A process is a planned series of actions that advances a material or procedure from one stage of completion to the next. The beginning of a process starts with a trigger that causes a specific action to be taken by a person, another process, or work group. The ending occurs when the results get passed on to another person, process, or work group.

Knowing the basics of a system enables you to better understand the tasks that lay ahead. Although you are interested in the system as a whole, so that you may understand its purpose and goals, the main emphasis of this initial research should be on the people within the system. You need to learn as much about the proposed learners (target population) as possible. The target population data is essential and most useful when making decisions about the proposed learning program. You must understand the people issues! This is the biggest variable in a training program...and one of the hardest parts of a training program to account for. Statisticians can tell you every fact you want to know about the "average" person...but I dare you to find a real live average person. Listed below are some of the aspects you should be looking for:

• Anticipated number of learners
• Location of learners
• Education and experience of the learners
• Background of learners
• Experience in present or related jobs
• Job performance requirements versus present skill levels
• Language or cultural differences of learners
• Motivation of learners.
• Physical or mental characteristics of learners
• Specific interests or biases of learners.

During the meeting, do not mention training or methods for solving performance problems. Your job is to guide, listen, and interpret. Once the lunch or meeting is over, reflect on what was said and use that information in your analysis. When it is time to brief them on your initial analysis project, show how the training department can help with some of their problems.

Depending upon the requirements of the project, Compile Task Inventory, Job List, Job Description, and Task Inventory may not have to be performed. These are normally only performed once in an organization and then updated on an as needed basis. Performing them every time a client needs training would be a waste of time and money. But, when you are tackling performance problems, the pertinent parts should be reviewed so that you know what the job and task requirements are, and then updated so that anyone who follow you will have valid material to work with.

Compile Task Inventory

If the job and task inventories have already been compiled, then you should review and update them before moving on to the task analysis or needs analysis.

Job List

Job Description

When writing the Job Description, try to create a picture of the job that shows what will be expected of anyone fulfilling the position. Also, prepare a job description for each position. That is, you might have two sales positions, but some tasks may be different or are included in one position but not the other.

Task Inventory

The following are characteristics of tasks:

• A task has a definite beginning and end.
• Tasks are performed in relatively short periods of time. They are usually measured in minutes or hours.
• Tasks are observable. By observing the performance of a jobholder, a definite determination can be made that the task has been performed.
• Each task is independent of other actions. Tasks are not dependent on components of a procedure. A task is performed by an individual for its own sake.
• A task statement is a statement of a highly specific action. It always has a verb and an object. It may have qualifiers, such as "measure distances with a tape measure". A task statement should not be confused with an objective that has conditions and standards.

The task inventory consists of all the tasks that a jobholder requires to perform the job to standards. Each and every task performed by the job incumbent must be listed on the task inventory. It provides vital information about the skills, knowledge, and abilities required to perform a job. This information is valuable for developing employee selection procedures and training programs. For hiring, it informs the selection committee and applicant of what the job entails. For training purposes, it tells the developer what the job requires. It is also valuable for setting standards in performance appraisals and evaluating jobs to determine the correct pay level. Again, this document may already have been created. You should ensure that it truly represents the tasks being performed by the job holder, and that all the tasks are listed.

When writing the task, start each task with a verb, indicate how it is performed, and state the objective. For example: "Loads crates using a forklift." One way of getting a comprehensive list is to have the employees prepare their own list, starting with the most important tasks. Then, compare these lists with yours. Finally, discuss any differences with the employees, and make changes where appropriate. This helps to ensure that you have accounted for all tasks and that they are accurate. It also gets them involved in the analysis activity.

Task or needs analysis should be performed whenever there are new processes or equipment, when job performance is below standards, or when requests for changes to current training or for new training are received. An analysis helps ensure that training is the appropriate solution.

See tasks for more information

You and the clients are now ready to select the tasks to be trained. The information gathered in the systems overview, i.e., surveys, interviews, etc., will aid in your decision making process. Two processes are used in the identification of areas to be trained - Task Analysis and Needs Analysis.

Task Analysis

When deciding which tasks to train, two guiding factors must be used — effective and efficient. Seek the best program within acceptable costs while meeting the learning intents. Often it helps to select tasks for training by dividing them into three groups:

1. Those that are to be included in a formal learning program.
2. Those that are to be included in On-the-Job-Training (OJT).
3. Those for which no formal or OJT is needed (i.e., job performance aids or self study packets).

• Is the training mandated by the Occupational Safety and Health Act?
• Could a job performance aid or self study packet be used in place of formal training?
• Can people be hired that have already been trained?
• Is training needed to ensure their behavior does not compromise the company's legal position, i.e., Equal Employment Opportunity, labor relations laws, or state laws?
• What will happen if we do not train this task?
• What will be the benefits if we do train this task?
• If we don't train it, how will the employee learn it?
• How will this training help to achieve our goals?

• How difficult or complex is the task?
• What behaviors are used in the performance of the job?
• How frequently is the task performed?
• How critical is the task to the performance of the job?
• To what degree is the task performed individually, or is part of a set of collective tasks?
• If a subset of a set of collective tasks, what is the relationship between the various tasks?
• What is the consequence if the task is performed incorrectly or is not performed at all?
• To what extent can the task be trained on the job?
• What level of task proficiency is expected following training?
• How critical is the task?
• What information is needed to perform the task? What is the source of information?
• What are the performance requirements?
• Does execution of the task require coordination between other personnel or with other tasks?
• Are the demands (perceptual, cognitive, psychomotor or physical) imposed by the task excessive?
• How often is the task performed during a specified time-frame (i.e., daily, weekly, monthly, yearly)?
• How much time is needed to perform this task?
• What prerequisite skills, knowledge, and abilities are required to perform the task?
• What is the current criteria for acceptable performance? What is the desired criteria?
• What behaviors distinguish good performers from poor performers?
• What behaviors are critical to the performance of the task?

Performance measures are the standards for how well a task must be performed. There are four basic analysis techniques used to ensure that all performance measures associated with a task are recorded (Wiggs, 1984):

• Observation Task Analysis: Observe the task under actual working conditions and record each step for performing the task and the standards of performance.
• Simulated Task Analysis: Observe skilled individuals or groups performing the task under simulated working conditions. The working conditions should match the job environment as closely as possible. Record each step and standards of performance with inputs from the skilled performers.
• Content Analysis: Analyze the operating or technical manual to determine the steps and standards of performance.
• Interview Analysis: Consult with a SME to determine the required steps and standards of performance. This is normally used to validate the data gathered by other techniques. This method should not be used alone. Experts often leave out vital steps as they have performed the task so often that some of the steps become so internalized that they fail to acknowledge doing so!

Choose Instructional Setting

The instructional setting has minor media within it. Minor media are the learning strategies that instruct the learning points or steps. For example a JPA instructional setting might have two - a decal for starting the equipment and a manual for performing the various operations. The classroom setting could have fishbowls for teaching observation, in-baskets for teaching time management, and lectures for introducing new information. CBT could use video, self-tests, and simulations. The learning strategies (minor media) will be discussed in detail in the next chapter - Design.

If you have successfully trained similar tasks in the past, then you probably have a pretty good idea of the required delivery system. If not, then there are several options to consider when selecting the delivery system:

• Feedback: Simple, yet effective, and often overlooked with today's high technology! Sometimes your job is not to train the workers who cannot perform the task, but to train their supervisors or managers in effective coaching and supervision methods.
• Lockstep: This is normally viewed as the traditional (classroom) type of training. It is best used when you have lectures or team training. Its main disadvantage is that no one learns at the same pace.
• Self-Paced: This allows the learners to proceed at their own pace but it requires more development time and coordination.
• Job: This includes Job Performance Aids (JPA) such as decals and manuals and On-the-Job training (OJT). JPA are normally the cheapest method to implement while OJT can provide high quality, cost effective training. The disadvantages are the interruptions that take place in the workplace with OJT, while JPA provide no supervision or coaching.
• Blended: Best-Of-Class Model (hybrid or modular) are a combination of various media that provides the learners with the best type of instruction - this should be the goal of any training program.

Although most learning objectives and concepts can be taught using almost any media, most have an ideal medium in a given learning situation. To help with the major media selection process, it often helps to run it through a flowchart:

Click chart to enlarge

The above Training Media Selection Flowchart is a tool to aid you in selecting the best medium for a training program. The flowchart should not be thought of as the final word in media selection, but rather a guide that shows the various options for communicating and transferring your learning objectives to others. It does not attempt to take it through every avenue of approach, as that would lead to a highly convoluted chart; but rather its goal is to lead you through the major media directions and choices.

When selecting training media, you have to consider your learner needs, resources, experience, and training goals. Also, do not take a complete training program through the chart, but rather each module of your training program. The goal of a good training effort is to build a viable and efficient program. That is, it should provide the best learning environment at the lowest possible cost. Selecting the best medium for each module and incorporating it into your course allows you to build a Best-Of-Class program.

The guidelines for selecting the instructional setting are simple - you want the learners to master the new or existing technology in a professional, effective, and efficient manner.

There are a wide variety of instructional settings. For a comprehensive list, view the Media Dictionary.

Heraclitus of Ephesus was one of the early Greek philosophers. He emphasized that the world is constantly changing. He said, "No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it is not the same river and he is not the same man." The saying "There is nothing permanent except change" is based upon his philosophy. Estimating training is no exception. . . it also will change and vary depending upon who is building the training programming and what type of training they are creating.

Various Approaches to Needs Analysis

Estimating Training Developing Time and Costs

To help with estimating costs of any learning program, use the Excel Spreadsheet Rough Cost estimator. This will help you get a very rough estimate.

Learning Activities for Analysis

Previous Chapter - Introduction to ISD

Next Chapter - Design

References

Garnevale, A., Gainer, L., & Villet, J., (1990), Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ray, R. (2008). The Future of learning. Chief Learning Officer. Dec., 2008, p.21.

Trolley, E. (2006). Lies About Learning. Larry Israelite, ed. Baltimore, Maryland: ASTD.

Wick, C., Pollock, R., Jefferson, A., Flanagan, R., (2006). The Six Disciplines of Breakthrough Learning: How to Turn Training and Development Into Business Results. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Bowsher, J. (1998). Revolutionizing Workforce Performance: A System Approach to Mastery. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Laird, Dugan (1985). Approaches To Training And Development (2nd ed.), . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Rossett, Allison & Sheldon, Kendra (2001). Beyond the Podium: Delivering Training and Performance to a Digital World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, p. 67.

Wiggs, Garland (1984). Designing Learning Programs. In Nadler, Leonard (Ed.). The Handbook of Human Resource Development. New York: John Wiley & Sons.